Communication:
Mass and Other Forms
___________________________________________________________________
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
At a general level, communication events involve the following elements:
. a source
. a process of encoding
. a message
. a channel
. a process of decoding
. a receiver
. the potential for feedback
. the chance of noise
Transmitting the Message
The Source. The source, or sender, initiates the communication process by having a thought or an idea that he or she wishes to transmit to some other entity. Sources can be individuals, groups, or even organizations.
Encoding the message. Encoding includes all the activities that a source goes through to translate thoughts and ideas into a form that can be perceived by the senses. It can take place one or more times in any given communication event. In a face to face conversation, the speaker encodes thoughts into words; if a telephone is used, subsequently encodes sound waves into electrical energy
Message. The message is the actual physical product that the source encodes which may range from the short, simple and inexpensive to the long, complex and costly. Humans usually have a large number and wide range of messages at their disposal that they can choose to send. Messages can be directed to an individual or to millions.
Channels. Channels refer to the ways in which the message travels to the receiver. These include sound waves, light waves, air currents, and touch. Some messages may go through multiple channels.
Decoding the message. Decoding the message is the opposite of the encoding process. It's the process by which a message is translated into a form the receiver can understand. Both people and machines can be message decoders. Some messages can involve many decoding stages.
Receiver. The receiver is the target of the message. The target can be an individual, a group, or an anonymous collection of people. Most people receive far more messages than they send. Receivers can be targeted for a message (a phone call) or they can self-select themselves (choosing which movie to watch). Receivers and senders can be in immediate contact (talking on the phone) or they can be separated by space and time (reading a Shakespearean play).
Feedback. Feedback refers to responses from the receiver that shape and alter later messages from the source. Feedback represents the reversal of the communication flow (sender becomes receiver). It answers the source’s unstated question, “How am I doing?”
. positive feedback: encourages current communication message or pattern
. negative feedback: tries to change the communication or even terminate it
. feedback can be immediate or delayed
Noise. Noise is anything that interferes with the delivery of the message.
. Semantic noise occurs when people have different meanings for different words
. Mechanical noise occurs when there is a problem with a machine being used for
communication
. Environmental noise occurs when noise external to the communication process
interferes with communication
. As noise increases, message fidelity (how closely the message sent resembles the
message received) degrades
. The more immediate and better the feedback, the more chance a source has to reduce
or eliminate noise interference with the message
COMMUNICATION SETTINGS
Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication involves one person (or group) interacting with another person (or group) without the aid of a mechanical device. The source and receiver are in the immediate physical presence of one another. Characteristics of interpersonal communication include the following:
. source and receiver can be individuals or groups
. encoding is usually a one-step process
. a variety of channels are usually available for use
. messages are relatively difficult for receiver to terminate
. produced at little or no expense
. messages can be private or public
. message can pinpoint highly specific targets
. decoding is usually a one-step process
. feedback is immediate
. noise can be semantic or environmental
Machine-Assisted Interpersonal Communication
Machine-assisted interpersonal communication involves one or more people communicating by means of a mechanical device or devices with one or more receivers. It combines characteristics of interpersonal and mass communication situations and blurs the line between the two types of communication, especially when involving the Internet and World Wide Web. Machines can give communication permanence and/or extend its range. The source and receiver can be separated by time and space. A great deal of modern communication falls into this category. Characteristics of machine-assisted interpersonal communication include the following:
. source may be an individual or group; may or may not be easy to identify
. source may or may not have first-hand knowledge of the receiver
. the encoding process can range from the simple to the complex
. Two encoding stages:
(1) source translates his/her thoughts into words or other symbols
(2) machine encodes the message for transmission or storage
. channel options are more restricted than interpersonal communication
. machine-assisted messages have at least one machine between source and receiver
. message customizability varies; messages can be private or public
. messages relatively inexpensive to send
. decoding requires one or more stages depending upon the encoding process
. receiver may be an individual or group; may or may not be easy to identify
. receivers can be selected by the sender for a message or they can self-select themselves
. feedback can be immediate or delayed; may be difficult or limited to one channel
. noise can be semantic, environmental, and mechanical
. use of mechanical-assisted interpersonal communication will continue to grow
Mass Communication (What we emphasize in this course).
Mass Communication is the process by which a complex organization produces and transmits public messages directed at large, heterogeneous and scattered audiences with the aid of one or more machines. Many communication situations will fall in a gray area between machine-assisted and mass communications, especially when considering the Internet and World Wide Web. Characteristics of mass communication include the following:
. source can be a group of individuals who usually act within the predetermined roles
of an organizational setting, or, since the advent of the Internet, one person
can become a mass communicator
. sender usually has little detailed information about particular audiences
. encoding is always a multi-stage process
. channel options are more restricted than interpersonal communication
. mass media channels characterized by the imposition of at least one and usually more
than one machine in the process of sending the message
. messages are public, and the same message is sent to all receivers
. message termination is easiest here
. typically requires multiple decoding
. message flow is generally one-way, from source to receiver
. feedback is usually harder to initiate than in interpersonal communication
. noise can be semantic, environmental, and mechanical
A prime distinction between mass communication and interpersonal and mechanical communication is that audience members are:
. large
. heterogeneous
. geographically dispersed
. largely anonymous to one another
. almost always self-defined
Defining Mass Media
A medium is the channel through which a message travels from source to receiver (“medium” is singular; “media” is plural). Mass media include not only the mechanical devices that transmit messages, but also the institutions that use these devices. A media vehicle is a single component of the mass media, such as a newspaper, radio station, or magazine, web site, video game, television station, etc.
TRADITIONAL MEDIA ORGANIZATIONS
Traditional defining characteristics of mass communicators include the following:
. complex and formal organizations
. multiple gatekeepers
. need large amount of money to operate
. exist to make a profit
. highly competitive
Formal Organizational Structure
Mass media typically have a well-defined organizational structure characterized by specialization, division of labor, and focused areas of responsibility. Communication is generally the product of a bureaucracy, with decisions made on multiple levels, often within highly formalized channels (group decisions and committees, for example)
Many Gatekeepers
A gatekeeper is any person (or group) who has control over what material eventually reaches the public; the more complex the organization, the more gatekeepers will be found.
High Operating Expenses
It often costs millions of dollars to buy and maintain a mass media organization, which is one reason for the current trend towards media consolidation of ownership.
Competition for Profits
Most media organizations in the US exist to make a profit; if they don’t they will soon go out of business. Most profits are usually made by selling audiences to advertisers; hence media organizations compete with one another to attract audiences.
THE INTERNET
AND MASS COMMUNICATION
The Internet created a new channel for machine-assisted and mass communication, and brings the cost of mass communication to a level at which many can afford it. In addition, the personal ability to publish online creates new definitions of what it takes to be a “mass communicator,” many of which are at variance with the traditional defining characteristics of mass communicators. For example:
. Web sites can be produced by a single individual, so there’s little need for large staffs
or formal organizational structure;
. Web sites may bypass gatekeepers; creativity reigns (although there are, conversely, no
safeguards that what is “published” is tasteful, worthwhile, or even accurate);
. Web sites are characterized by low start up and maintenance costs;
. Web sites may or may not exist for profit;
. Competition for audiences, typical of traditional mass media, often doesn’t play a vital
role in individual web sites
The Internet has evolved into both a mass medium (we watch TV, movies, read newspapers, read books online, play video games, etc.) and an interpersonal medium (we go online to communicate with others via Facebook, Twitter, email, etc.).
MODELS FOR STUDYING
MASS COMMUNICATION
The Traditional Mass Communication Model
This one-way model of mass communication is adapted from an early model presented by Wilbur Schramm. In it, communication flows from left to right. According to this traditional model, information (news and entertainment) comes from the environment and is filtered through a mass media organization. The information is decoded, interpreted, and encoded. Messages passing through the gatekeepers are reproduced multiple times and sent through the appropriate channel. Each copy of the message is identical. Audience members are not passive; they decode, interpret, and encode messages themselves. They are socially connected to others, and the messages may be discussed, reinterpreted, and acted upon. Some audience behavior is observed by the media organization and serves as feedback to shape future messages. There is little direct interaction between sources and receivers.
An Internet Mass Communication Model
This model allows several levels of communication:
. one to one (email, Facebook message, IM, etc.)
. one to many (CNN.com, NYtimes.com, gawker.com, huffingtonpost.com, etc.)
. one/few to few (Facebook posts, blog posts, Twitter posts, online discussions groups, etc.-- though, admittedly, Facebook and Twitter posts CAN be one to many, most are one to few)
. many to many (e-Bay, Craigslist.org, etc.)
This is not a left-to-right model; communication flows inward. In this model, content can be provided by organizations and by individuals. There are no organizational gatekeepers. One person decodes, interprets, and encodes the content. The receiver initiates the process, choosing the time and manner of the interaction.
Messages flowing through the model are not identical, nor are they linear. The Internet’s use of hypertext (a means of presenting information that allows you to jump between one source of information or another in whatever order you choose) allows the receiver to access information in any order he or she sees fit. Some writers have characterized the traditional mass communication model as a “push” model (wherein the sender pushes the information to the receiver) whereas the Internet model is a “pull” model (wherein the receiver pulls only the information that he or she wants to receive).
Individuals and organizations are linked in a computer-mediated environment. This makes interaction and feedback easier, and supports totally new forms of interaction.
THE FUTURE OF MASS MEDIA
Segmentation
Mass communication has become less mass and more selective over the past few decades. This process is called fractionalization or segmentation of the mass media audience. Causes include:
. an increase in one-parent families
. an increase in the number of media vehicles from which to choose
. more time spent with media alone, as opposed to with friends or family members
. an increase in demand for special interest content
. commercial organizations are turning from mass-marketing to target-marketing
Despite these changes, the definition of mass communication given earlier still applies. Organizations are still complex, audiences still large. The channels of mass communication remain the same, though more mass media are using those channels to reach more selective audiences. Specialization is evident, but the potential for reaching a mass audience still exists.
Convergence
Convergence means coming together or uniting in a common theme or focus. It has become common in discussions of media trends. There are several levels of convergence.
Corporate convergence. Originally referred to in the 1980s as "synergy," corporate convergence occurs when companies acquire assets that extended the range of their activities. For example, a movie studio might acquire a distribution channel such as cable TV. The biggest example of corporate convergence was the 2001 merger of AOL and Time Warner. It looked like a good idea, but it didn't work, and in 2003 AOL was officially dropped from the company name. The current trend in corporate circles seems more toward divergence than convergence.
Operational convergence. Occurs when owners of several media properties in one market combine their operations. For example, a newspaper, a Web site, and a local cable news channel might operate a joint (converged) news department. Currently, about 50 instances of this kind of convergence are operating. Critics worry whether this will result in fewer independent and diverse forms of journalism.
Device convergence. One mechanism contains the functions of two or more devices. Examples include laptop computers that can play DVDs; smart phones that come equipped with digital video cameras, etc.
Disintermediation
Disintermediation refers to the process whereby access to a product or service is given directly to the consumer, thus eliminating the intermediary, or “middleperson,” who might typically supply the product or service. This phenomenon is particularly evident now on the Internet and on the World Wide Web. Disintermediation is of special concern to traditional media organizations because any large disruption of the distribution process can wreak economic havoc in the traditional distribution and production processes.
